1. INTRODUCTION

2. RESEARCH

This chapter explains the current advances in animal Connectome research, which are relevant to the fields of robotics, virtual reality, and connectomic research in living brains.

2.1 WormBot

Picture of the WormBot, a robot that uses the C.elegans Connectome.

A robot that moves back and forth and reacts to obstacles and stimuli. Nowadays, this description does not sound more special than robot vacuum cleaners. However, this robot does not work by traditional programming rules. It emulates the functioning of the brain of the C.elegans, and thereby reacts to its surrounding environment intuitively. Thus, the WormBot is the first attempt to create a robotic animal.

This animatronic worm can be attracted to sound sources. The scientist Timothy Busbice whistles at the robot increasingly until the WormBot moves to where he is, just like food would attract a living worm. It was also able to avoid obstacles, such as chair legs, by stopping on its own and choosing a better route (Brahic, 2014). The most fascinating element about this robot is that traditional programming rules have not been used; the Connectome has made it possible for the robot to behave intuitively in relation to its environment (Busbice, 2016).

2.2 FlyEM

Video screenshot showing the Connectome of the fruit fly D.melanogaster. 

The open-source FlyEM project used electron microscopy to visualize the fly’s central brain (hemibrain). The fly’s brain was sliced into 20-micron-thick slices, generating a database of 50 trillion 3D pixels. This database was processed at the aid of deep learning algorithms in order to classify the connections in a digital rendering; however, it took two years to manually verify the generated 3D map (Drew, 2021). This breakthrough has been of such magnitude for neuroscience that theoretical scientist Larry Abbott says in the Simons Foundation magazine article “The connected Connectome” we are at a substantial epochal change, BC and AC – “Before Connectome and after Connectome.” (Abbott, 2021)

In 2020 the Taiwanese university NTHU research team developed a chip which emulates the neural connections of the fruit fly’s optic nerve, and applied it to unmanned aerial vehicles or UAV. Saving large amounts of energy, in comparison to traditional AI, this chip allows drones to navigate through space and avoid obstacles, exactly as a fly would do (Hsueh, 2020).

2.3 Fish in the Matrix

 Video screenshot showing the zebrafish (D.rerio) larvae fixed to pipettes controlling horizontal bars in a screen.

The experiment “Fish in the Matrix” works by associating the zebrafish (D.rerio) thoughts with the control of black and white moving bars on a screen below the fish. Each time the fish thinks of moving, electrodes record nerve activity in its tail, allowing it to move the bars. The scientists modified the bars’ sensitivity control to make them move faster than usual, giving the fish the impression that it would have to move faster with each stroke, thereby making it think its tail had become a super-muscle. In the opposite case, if the bars moved slowly, the fish would think that its tail had become too weak. In both cases, the fish compensated its position in the stream by moving its tail slower or faster. The fish was able to recalibrate its tail movements and could remember them. After a 10-second pause the scientists played back the video at average speed, and the fish would now initially move its tail either too fast or too slow before adapting back (Sabar, 2015).

3. ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF BRAIN EMULATIONS

We have seen examples of worms taking over the role of machines, flies flying vehicles, and fish living in virtual reality. It seems that we are already living in a world in which fiction meets science. But what are the ethical implications of these fascinating advances? Do humans have the right to experiment with lifeforms although they might appear simple or unconscious, and how do we define that simplicity? If amoebas were large enough to be able to interact with humans, we likely would attribute states of pleasure, pain, and hunger very similar to how we perceive dogs. Since these organisms have a tiny size and live strange habitats, we do not think about them as sentient (Jennings, 1906). If we did, we probably would not choose to spray disinfectant on them.

Throughout history, different thinkers and philosophers have dealt with the topic of whether animals could possess consciousness or even feel pain. René Descartes, philosopher, mathematician, and scientist of the 17th century, saw animals as mere machines that did not have consciousness, and although they could react to pain, he thought that they simply just give us the impression that they feel as we do. Descartes carried out different studies that today might seem unethical; for instance, he performed several vivisections on animals (Koch, 2019).

Jacques de Vaucanson’s Digesting Duck illustration of the year 1739 might depict the theories of mechanical animals of René Descartes.

4. APPROACH USING SPECULATIVE DESIGN PRACTICE

When we talk about the future of technology, we tend to visualize a future that has already been written, dictated by trends visible in modern technological development. The speculative design practice offers a framework for thinking about a future, in order to understand the present better and discuss variables of already established predictions. It usually starts with the question “what if,” being primarily provocative and fictional, inviting the viewer to detach from their beliefs and making them reflect on how things could be, far from the here and now in relation to the present (Dunne & Raby, 2013).

4.1 Challenging the understanding of nature

We are entering a world of fascinating advances. Genetics, nanotechnology, and neuroscience all challenge our understanding of nature, by bringing forth new design possibilities that were not possible before; thus, we find ourselves designing not only for our environment but designing life itself (Dunne & Raby, 2013). Thanks to the availability of open source technologies, designers can now experiment with these technologies without a complex understanding of the matter, and without belonging to scientific institutions.

If we go back to the WormBot example: Today, anyone has the ability to download the algorithm that simulates a worm’s behaviour and reproduce it on any microcontroller such as an Arduino. Apart from having a critical eye on the negative consequences of manipulating other animals to our benefit, this level of accessibility breaks some paradigms about how we relate to organisms which have been considered inferior or non-sentient, elucidating other levels of interaction and appreciation regarding “lower organisms.” From a more optimistic perspective, these technologies offer an opportunity to appreciate our natural environment differently, influence our understanding of what it means to be human, and perhaps, guide us to reshape definitions of “lower-organisms” to “companion organisms.” By moving away from the “trap of anthropomorphism” (Sheldrake, 2021: 46), we avoid the tendency to reduce everything that does not look human to an object, for instance, by not naming animals as an “it.”

Soon we will see animatronic dolphins swimming in water parks (Graham-McLay, 2020). Coinciding with an era of ecological awareness, I perceive digitalized animal brains applied to speculative design as an informative tool for triggering cultural changes. Making humans relate more respectfully towards the environment, not only generates debate about technology itself, but also questions how humans perceive nature.

5. DESIGN PROCESS

As a starting point, I have established my work around the WormBot since it is the only platform available to ordinary users which allows for experimenting with the behaviour of a virtual animal on a microcontroller through one of its adapted DIY versions, Nematoduino. Being the only example so far, I have found it logical to use it as a proof of concept of the advances of digital Connectomes. I intend to modify its functions, exchange its parts such as motors and sensors, and extrapolate its dimensions, with the expectation of creating new interactions and insights in an art installation.

The Nematoduino has been conceived to emulate the physical/motor characteristics of the worm, so it reproduces movements which allow it to move back and forth in a horizontal plane, avoiding obstacles and thus redefining its path. Considering this, and without changing its code, it would be possible to modify, for example, the signals conducted to the motors to activate other mechanisms, adapt the worm to new contexts, and even change its shape away from its original purpose.

Picture of the AlphaBot2-Ar, the preferred platform for Nematoduino.

5.1 Defining the shape

5.1.1 Experiment No.1

To have an inflatable shape with an organic look, I created forms with construction foam and then covered them with several liquid latex layers to generate a sort of irregular balloon. After 24 hours of drying, the latex layer was removed. Unfortunately, the stability of the latex layers was not adequate, making the balloon explode under slight pressure or lose its air rapidly by micro-cracks generated by bubbles.

Picture of construction foam molds covered with liquid latex.

Picture of inflated latex form after removal.

5.2.2 Experiment No.2

As an alternative, I decided to try latex gloves, and the outcome of this experiment was more successful than my initial attempt. When inflated, the latex glove created an oversized shape with funny fingers which remain somewhat organic looking. Also, this material revealed another level of interpretation; the latex gloves create a link between anthropomorphism and our associations to consciousness. Simultaneously, it portrays the integration of biological intelligence into familiar objects in everyday life. This appreciation led me to think about exaggerating the transformation of this familiar object into an unrecognizable object, and I proceeded to carry this out in the following experiment.

Picture of inflated latex hand glove.

5.3.3 Experiment No.3

In this experiment, we continue to use the latex hand glove as an object; other parts have been included in this experiment to make up the final prototype. Through trial and error, the glove’s fingers were used as air inlets and outlets and then stretched from the inside towards the base with a nylon thread, thus transforming a regular hand glove into a strange figure with an apparent organic look. A pressure regulation valve has been added to avoid the shape exploding when inflated indefinitely.

Picture of inflated latex hand glove. Fingers stretched to the base.

Diagram of inflated latex hand glove – Inner structure. A, air hose; B, air valve attached with insulation tape; C, nylon thread stretching to the base; D: pressure regulation valve; E, tension disc; F, airflow inwards; G, airflow outwards.

6. PROTOTYPE

6.1 Interaction

The standard connections of the Nematoduino connects the microcontroller, which contains the neural network, to two motors. Every time the robot detects something with its ultrasonic sensor, the robot moves in a horizontal plane accordingly.

Connection diagram of the Nematoduino before modification.

In the modified version the motors have been replaced for solenoid air valves, which allows for activating or deactivating the airflow toward the shape, making it inflate depending on whether the robot detects something or not. In this case, it was necessary to add relays to activate the solenoid valves. An 8 Bar compressor supplies air to the shape.

Connection diagram of the Nematoduino after modification.

Solenoid air valves diagram – Airflow control. A, air inlet for inflating the shape; B, inlet for deflating the shape; C, solenoid air valve; D, signals for controlling solenoids from microcontroller; E, air incoming from air compressor.

6.2 Final configuration

The final prototype represents the emulated intelligence of a worm, visible at first glance through a familiar object, that in our presence becomes something unknown, although associable to the organic. The position of the proximity sensor of the emulated worm creates the circumstances for an intimate physical interaction, located a few centimeters away from the object; it forces the viewer to remain very close to activate it.

Final configuration diagram. A, inflatable shape; B, solenoid air valves; C, microcontroller; D, air compressor; E, ultrasonic sensor; F, ultrasonic sensor range.

I have decided to call this art installation “Worm in the Shell,” referring to the science fiction anime movie “Ghost in the Shell” from 1995, which envisions a future where the body is obsolete, and consciousness can be transferred to different synthetic bodies.

This device creates curiosity in the spectator, and at the same time, a certain degree of distrust. There is a particular interest in seeing how the shape inflates and the form that it acquires; however, there is a level of fear or respect for an object that makes loud noises, shoots air violently, and potentially explodes in our face. Thus new bonds are built, and new levels of relationship are generated between species, in which the human must learn to trust this emulated organism through a gradual approach by allowing him- or herself to appreciate its final form. When the sensor detects nothing, we can still appreciate certain glimpses of a conscious entity; apparently, the worm’s mind believes it moves on a horizontal plane and tries to activate its backward motors for tiny fractions of time to correct its path. This causes it to activate the air passage valves slightly, opening them incalculably from time to time. However, it will never inflate completely, only showing its true form when a person approaches it.

Picture of the final shape when inflated.

Close-up picture of air inlets and outlets.

Picture of the final shape when deflated.

Picture of the solenoid air valves connected to air hoses.

Picture of the microcontroller.

7. CONCLUSION

This thesis centers on the question, how will humans relate to emulated animal consciousness? In order to answer this question, qualitative content research was conducted on scientific advances in biological intelligence. On the other hand, speculative design prototypes were generated in an artistic framework. Creating these prototypes and the final art installation solves the lack of artifacts that allow familiarization for ordinary people towards this technology, serving as an innovative medium not common in the artistic field.

During the preliminary research phase, I could recognize that addressing this issue would not be a simple task. As a designer, I did not have the proper knowledge for understanding the terminology in the field of neuroscience; therefore, I had to do a background reading to understand the basic principles about the brain workings. Books such as Connectome by Paul Seung served as a basis for approaching the subject and understanding the scientific articles used as a reference in this thesis.

As a result of the observations made during the theory research, paper prototypes were created that contextualized the incorporation of biological intelligence in concrete scenarios, thus exposing the main topics that could influence human behaviour. Only through the generation of such prototypes could I elucidate the importance of conscious relationships and the interpretation we have on consciousness. The final prototype and the type of materials used, like latex hand gloves, served as inspiration for more profound readings, such as anthropomorphic associations towards the perception of consciousness or the role of biological intelligence when applied to mundane devices. This transformation of states from something familiar to something unfamiliar resembles the role these systems will have for us, being preliminarily foreign, turning in something that we will nevertheless assume as familiar at a given moment.

The opportunity to develop this topic through speculative design and materializing it in an interactive art installation makes me appreciate the importance of this practice, leading to analyze topics that we might hear about but nevertheless remain overlooked. Thus, speculative design gives us the chance to reflect on them and their impact on society. Besides the positive implications that these advances could unfold in neuroscience, medicine, and informatics, speculating with animal Connectomes has led me to conclude that humans and biological intelligence will relate on an emphatic level. Humans will have to establish new forms of relationships and interactions with mechanical species of biological origin, generating other appreciation towards them. Simultaneously, these technologies will make it possible to get a little closer to organisms generally ignored but form an essential part of our ecosystem. By approaching these emulations, we do not move away from the organic world; instead, the contact with them leads us to a more comprehensive understanding of our environment.

Focusing on this topic led me to several possible scenarios to implement through the speculative design practice that I would like to develop in the future. For example, I envision a project related to the ethical implications regarding the rights of emulated animal Connectomes, speculating about future organizations that focus on the rights of digitized animals, which I would name the “cyber-animal rights.” Along with this, we could address this issue through virtual reality, in which we could generate a virtual world to house the consciousness of animals that are no longer useful for scientific research and that, due to strict ethical regulations, cannot be destroyed. As a virtual sanctuary, it would be possible to give these conscious digital entities a body and a suitable environment to continue subsisting. We, as spectators, would be able to visit this virtual sanctuary, making an analogy to the current sanctuaries that shelter animals exposed to scientific experimentation.However, this debate remains exclusively within the scientific community, rare­ly offering an opportunity for the general population to generate their own personal perspective on the implications of these advances, which will likely come to have an increasingly deep impact on their future daily lives. The current lack of available arti­facts which visualize emulated intelligence, makes it difficult to grasp the significance of these findings and how they might challenge our understanding of nature, how we perceive other life forms considered lower than us, how we relate to them, and what it means to be conscious.

8. DOCUMENTATION BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brahic, C. (2014, November 16). First digital animal will be perfect copy of real worm. New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22429972-300-first-digital-animal-will-be-perfect-copy-of-real-worm/

Busbice, T. (2016, July 26). Building artificial Connectomes. O’Reilly Media. https://www.oreilly.com/content/building-artificial-Connectomes/

Dunne, A., & Raby, F. (2013). Speculative Everything: Design, Fiction, and Social Dreaming”. In Speculative Everything: Design, Fiction, and Social Dreaming”. MIT Press.

Drew, L. (2021, February 25). The Connected Connectome. Simons Foundation. https://www.simonsfoundation.org/2021/02/25/the-connected-Connectome/

Graham-McLay, C. (2020, July 13). Robot dolphins: The cruelty-free £20m “animal” you can’t tell from the real thing. The Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/13/robot-dolphins-the-cruelty-free-20m-animal-you-cant-tell-from-the-real-thing

Hsueh, H. (2020, March 4). NTHU Research Team Teaches Drone to Fly Like an Insect. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20200304005029/en/NTHU-Research-Team-Teaches-Drone-to-Fly-Like-an-Insect

Koch, C. (2019). The Feeling of Life Itself. In The Feeling of Life Itself (The MIT Press). The Feeling of Life Itself (The MIT Press).

Sabar, A. (2015, January 7). How a Transparent Fish May Help Decode the Brain. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/How-transparent-fish-may-help-decode-brain-180955734/